The Battle of Arx Cynwit (878 CE)            

The Case for Countisbury Hillfort (Wind Hill) near Lynmouth Bay, Exmoor

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[878 CE]...the brother of Ivar and Halfdan, with twenty-three ships, came, after many massacres of the Christians, from Dyfed, where he had wintered, and sailed to Devon, where with twelve hundred others he met with a miserable death, being slain, while committing his misdeeds, by the king's thanes, before the fortress of Cynwit, in which many of the king's thanes, with their followers, had shut themselves up for safety. — Asser's Life of King Alfred (written circa 893 AD).

Keywords: Battle of Cynwit, Wessex, Viking invasions, Early English history, Countisbury Hillfort.

Last modified on December 15, 2024

Abstract

This paper examines the Battle of Cynwit, a pivotal engagement fought between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings during early 878 AD, probably at Countisbury’s Wind Hill Promontory Fort in what is now North Devon. According to historical accounts, a large Viking army, described as "Danes" and "heathens", blockaded the fortified civitas of "Cynwit/Cynuit" in "Devonshire".

The garrison of West Saxon thanes, led by Ealdorman Odda and supported by local militias, launched a desperate ambush at dawn, killing and routing the majority of the Scandinavian siege force. Contemporary chroniclers state that the heathens' king, Ubba, was slain in front of the fortress of Cynwit, and that the West Saxons captured the Vikings' raven war-flag.

Drawing on sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) and Asser’s Life of King Alfred in which the battle is mentioned, this study evaluates the battle's key role in resisting Viking incursions and its contribution to the eventual unification of England.

While Odda’s victory demonstrated that Anglo-Saxon resistance was not solely reliant on King Alfred, it was part of a broader conflict culminating in Alfred’s triumph over the 'Great Heathen Army' at Ethandun in May 878.

The year 878 AD represents a turning point for the Anglo-Saxons. Alfred’s reforms in fortifications, naval defences, and governance during his reign (871–899) laid the foundations for a more resilient kingdom, and fostered the unifying concept of Angelcynn.

Alfred was central to England’s defence, yet he was not, as Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. 1142) claimed, the first ruler of all England. Even so, the House of Wessex played a central role in early medieval English history.

Among competing claims for Cynwit’s location, Wind Hill promontory fort near Lynmouth Bay stands out. Its archaeological features, historians, and articles by agencies such as Exmoor National Park Heritage and Historic England, suggest this to be Asser's Cynwit.

While there are no detailed records describing the Battle of Cynwit, the characteristics of Countisbury Wind Hill seem to align with contemporary descriptions of the location and events. If Wind Hill was indeed the site of the battle, it would have played a crucial role in the Anglo-Saxons' struggles against Viking invasions during the ninth-century AD.

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Introduction

The year 878 AD marks both a trough and a moment of remarkable recovery in the history of early medieval England (Savage, A. [ed.] 1988, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles). The Viking 'Great Heathen Army' had overrun much of England, leaving Wessex as the last major Anglo-Saxon kingdom standing. 

For additional context: more photographs and illustrations are posted after this paper's bibliography. 

The early English kingdoms were attractive to Viking coastal raiders for several key reasons:

• Scandinavia's growing population put pressure on limited agricultural land, prompting exploration and colonisation.
• The early English kingdoms were vulnerable to Norse raids due to geo-political fragmentation and sporadic internal conflicts. The Vikings took advantage and exploited these divisions and weaknesses.
• Wealth and Resources: The early English kingdoms were rich in valuable goods and metals, making them vulnerable to external raids and particularly Viking incursions.
• Vikings raided not only for portable wealth and violence; they sought power, fuelled by the excitement of exploration and the pursuit of bold achievements.
• Early England and Wales offered arable land for farming, and opportunities for settlers to establish themselves, especially in the Danelaw regions (eastern and northern England).
• Rich Agricultural Lands: Fertile soils offered abundant food resources and agricultural opportunities, making these territories ideal for settlement and farming.

Blair, J. (2000). The Anglo-Saxon Age: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Ashby, Steven P. (2015). What really caused the Viking Age? The social content of raiding and exploration. Archaeological Dialogues, 14(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1380203807002127. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 May 2015.

Cynwit: A Wessex Victory Independent of King Alfred

Asser and the ASC both indicate that the Danish heathens besieging Cynwit were defeated by someone other than Alfred 'the Great', highlighting that Saxon resistance wasn't solely dependent on the king:

• Saxon resistance extended beyond the king’s direct command, suggesting a degree of autonomy.
• Odda’s victory over the Danes demonstrated the crucial contribution of regional leaders, and the local fyrd (militia), in protecting early English territories.
• The Wessex victory bolstered morale and proved that local initiatives could effectively counter Viking aggression.
• The battle of Cynwit likely influenced King Alfred’s strategic thinking, reinforcing the importance of adaptable, autonomous command structures in his later military reforms.

Ryan Lavelle (2012) underlines the importance of warfare and its organisation in the development of the late Anglo-Saxon state (AD c. 850–1066). Lavelle examines the various ways warfare was recorded and remembered (Alfred's Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age).

In summary, Cynwit showed the value of fortifying communities and utilising regional strengths. Earl Odda's forces played a significant role in English resistance to Viking incursions, and in shaping Alfred's legacy. Thus Odda's victory contributed towards the unification of Anglo-Saxon England.

Military Roles of Anglo-Saxon Nobility: Client Kings and Ealdormen

Although the king occupied a distinct and elevated position within the Anglo-Saxon social hierarchy,  principal nobles of the realm also fulfilled essential military roles.

• The king held the highest authority, with his decisions considered absolute. This was rooted in the belief that the king's power was divinely ordained, meaning any opposition to the king was viewed as a defiance of God's will.
• Influential Anglo-Saxon nobles maintained retinues of warriors or hearth troops, who resided within their households, forming close-knit community groups.
• In the context of Anglo-Saxon noble households, the hearth was more than just a source of warmth; it symbolised the centre of physical and social life, and camaraderie.
• In the earlier stages of kingdom formation, nobles were often client kings who owed allegiance to a more powerful ruler. From the mid-Anglo-Saxon period (AD c. 650–850) onward, they were typically referred to as ealdormen [earls].
• Ealdormen's responsibilities encompassed assembling troops to support the king’s military campaigns, and commanding forces in the king's name (Lambert, T., 2017, pp. 116–118).
• Thanes or thegns were lesser nobles who held land, and performed both military and administrative duties, often under the direction of ealdormen such as Odda at Cynwit in 878 AD.

Loyn, H. R. (1984). The governance of Anglo-Saxon England, 500-1087. London: Edward Arnold. https://archive.org/details/governanceofangl0000loyn. 

Oasis Academy MediaCityUK. (n.d.). Year 10 History Week 2 and 3: Online home learning.  https://www.oasisacademymediacityuk.org/uploaded/MediaCityUK/Curriculum/Online_Learning/Year_10_Online_home_learning/Y10_History_Week_2_and_3.pdf. 

Cynwit and the Broader Strategic Struggle

Asser's report of Earl Odda's victory at "Cynwit, Devonshire" in 878 AD, records a significant contribution to the Anglo-Saxons' struggle for survival against Viking attacks. The defence of Wessex was crucial in the broader context of England's resistance to Viking forces.

Richard Abels (1998) discusses Alfred's military and cultural reforms, and the strategic significance of the battles during 878. Local victories such as Cynwit supported Alfred's recovery and eventual success at Edington later in 878 (Alfred the Great, War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England).

Alfred's triumphs in warfare, coupled with his transformative administrative reforms, safeguarded his homeland of Wessex from Viking domination and initiated the political unification that ultimately led to the establishment of the Kingdom of England (ibid).

A Viking victory in Wessex would have meant the complete subjugation of early medieval England to Norse rule, erasing Anglo-Saxon identity. Without Wessex, Alfred could not have reorganised or led resistance, and the contemporary Heptarchy could not have recovered.

Asser should be regarded as a source requiring critical scrutiny and careful consideration, recognising possible embellishments and later interpolations. In his commentaries, historian Charles Plummer attributes potential bias to the political and literary influences of the time (Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (1892–1899).

While not entirely reliable, the broader text of Asser's Life of Alfred is often defended as largely authentic. A significant source for understanding the reign of Alfred the Great, Asser's work stands as a valuable historical document.

One version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recounts the experiences of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, between 878 and 886 AD during the Viking incursions. "In the winter of 878, the brother of Inwar and Halfdene was in Wessex, in Devonshire, with twenty-three ships, and he was there slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his force"(Halsall, Paul, 2024 [1996]).

The Chronicle aligns with Asser's account of Odda's victory and the capture of the Viking Raven banner, detailed in Life of Alfred. Asser's mention of "Devonshire" in Alfred's biography likely refers to a geographical location, as formal counties as administrative units were not established at the time.

Political boundaries were fluid, with counties more loosely defined (British Library, 2019). The location of Cynwit could be in what is now Devon, yet the lack of precise contemporary maps or boundaries from the time leaves us to rely on historical interpretation, and geographical reasoning to approximate the site.

While battles such as Cynwit, and Ethandun later in 878, were key moments in this conflict, focusing on any single event oversimplifies the complex dynamics of the period. Smaller victories such as Odda's at Cynwit had far-reaching implications for the protracted struggles with the Vikings.

During May 878, King Alfred defeated the Danes at the Battle of Ethandun, marking the most significant battle of his reign. This victory allowed Alfred to reclaim Wessex, reassert his authority, and restore stability to his kingdom (Smyth, Alfred P., To the Last Ditch at Edington, Oxford, 1995).

Alfred P. Smyth (1995) examines the evidence surrounding the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle's depiction of the events of 878, which are said to have changed Alfred’s fortunes from being a defeated and deposed king, to a victorious military leader who secured the future independence of the West Saxon kingdom.

Traditionally identified as taking place at Edington in Wiltshire, Ethandun was a turning point in the Viking wars, solidifying Alfred's position as a military leader. The Anglo-Saxon victory over the "Great Heathen Army" set the stage for Alfred’s military and administrative reforms, which were critical in strengthening the kingdom's defence.

Alfred's creation of fortified towns (burhs), the expansion of naval defences, and the centralisation of royal authority helped to establish a more unified and resilient English kingdom (Lavelle, R., Alfred’s Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age, 2010).

Wessex, the dynasty that founded the Kingdom of England, is central to early medieval English history (Yorke, Barbara, 1995, Wessex in The Early Middle Ages).

Ryan Lavelle (2010) emphasises the strategic importance of early victories like Cynuit, explaining that these confrontations were not isolated military events but crucial moments that bolstered the Anglo-Saxons' defensive resolve. These victories, when viewed within the broader scope of Alfred's efforts, contributed significantly to the long-term survival of Wessex and the resistance to Viking incursions (ibid).

The successful Wessex ambush at Cynwit, launched at dawn, not only bolstered West Saxon morale; it also reinforced King Alfred’s authority. The Viking defeat at Cynwit significantly weakened their presence in the region, inflicting heavy casualties on the great army of Norse invaders which had arrived England in the autumn of 865 AD.

The destruction of the Danish forces at Cynwit, including the loss of their leader Ubba (unconfirmed), underscored the effectiveness of local military strategies in countering Viking aggression.

The "most spectacular" prominent linear earthwork on Wind Hill, referred to as Countisbury Camp, is characterised by a substantial bank and ditch on its eastern side, effectively isolating the end of the hill spur to create a "promontory fort" (National Trust, 2024).

In summary, Wind Hill's British Iron Age hillfort stands as a formidable redoubt. And the Battle of Cynwit in 878 AD, also known as the "Battle of Countisbury Hill" (Rayner, M., 2006), represents a transformative event in the consolidation of 9th century English society and resistance against external threats. 

The House of Wessex and the Formation of a Unified England

Alfred's successes in uniting Wessex and pushing back the Viking threat established Wessex as the preeminent power in England. His descendants, including his son Edward the Elder, continued the work of unifying the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

A more cohesive kingdom of England was formed in the 10th century under Æthelstan (b. 894), Alfred's grandson (Foot, Sarah, 2011). In effect, Æthelstan became overlord of Britain (ibid). The House of Wessex was vital in the creation of a unified England. Its legacy continued to shape the English monarchy, even after the dynasty itself came to an end in the eleventh-century.

James Campbell described Late Anglo-Saxon England (AD c. 850–1066) as functioning as "a nation-state". It had a centralised government, well-structured institutions, a common language, a unified church, and established borders (though somewhat flexible in the north). Most importantly, it had a strong sense of national identity (Campbell's The Anglo-Saxons, 1991). 

Sarah Foot, in her biography Æthelstan: The First King of England (2011), highlights how the achievements of Alfred the Great and his descendants shaped the trajectory of the English monarchy. Gaines, M., also discusses this in Alfred the Great: The foundation of the English monarchy (2015).

Gaines (2015) concludes that Alfred’s reign directly influenced the path of future English monarchs, providing them with the necessary tools for governance, defence, and maintaining control over their kingdoms.

Overemphasis on Cynwit as a Turning Point

While some scholars emphasise the importance of battles like Cynwit and Edington during AD 878, others argue that attributing the turning point of the Viking invasions to a single event is an over-simplification.

Smyth (1995) argues that the Viking threat was enduring and complex. He suggests that the consolidation of Wessex's power resulted more from ongoing reforms, strategic diplomacy, and the creation of a stronger defensive infrastructure than from any single military victory.

In this view, whilst the battle at Cynwit may have been an important tactical success, it was part of a broader pattern of resistance and adaptation rather than a pivotal break in the war.

The Case for Countisbury Promontory Hillfort

Battlefield historian Michael Rayner states that "A Viking army from 23 ships attacked the Saxon Earl Odda at Countisbury Hill (Cynwit) in North Devon" (English Battlefields - 500 Battlefields that Shaped English History ; "Countisbury, battle of, 878". 2006, p. 109). This does not prove the location of the battle site.

Asser's record of the Battle of Cynwit, along with its strategic location and the involvement of elite forces and local militias, suggests the stronghold was a civitas or administrative centre of significant political or military value (Asser, Life of Alfred, c. 893). Combined with the archaeology, these factors make Countisbury Castle/Wind Hill a plausible candidate for the historical Cynwit.

Wind Hill promontory hillfort (monument) comprises a single rampart, situated on a westward-facing ridge bordered by the sea cliffs to the north, and the East Lyn Valley to the south (Exmoor National Park HER MDE1236). The hillfort is probably Celtic in origin and the landscape itself added to the fort's defensibility.

In Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (reissued 1952), historian Charles Plummer calls Countisbury "quasi Cynwitesbyrig". Plummer suggested a historical and etymological connection, supporting theories tying the site to the Battle of Arx Cynwit in 878 CE.

Scholars have challenged Plummer’s assertion that Countisbury Hillfort is the site referred to by Welsh bishop and scholar Asser (Asserius Menevensis, d. c. 910) as the arx Cynuit, often referred to as Cynwit. This criticism is based on phonological and linguistic grounds.

In plain terms, the name "Cynuit" might have been adapted from Anglo-Saxon names by Welsh speakers, following Welsh naming patterns. This linguistic adaptation could mean that "Cynuit" doesn’t necessarily refer to Countisbury Hillfort directly but may instead be a Welsh version of an Anglo-Saxon name.

These considerations make it more difficult to confirm a direct connection between the Battle of Cynwit and Countisbury Hillfort (English Place-Names Society [EPNS]).

The term Cynwitesbyrig or Cynwite's burh in Old English can be interpreted as "Cynwite's fortified place" or "Cynwite's stronghold." This nomenclature implies that the site was likely named after an individual named Cynwite and served as a defensive or fortified settlement, underscoring its role as a place of protection or strategic significance.

The Old English (Anglo‐Saxon) terms burg, burh, and byrig were used originally for fortified places (Oxford Reference, 2024). The phonetic similarity between "Cynwitesbyrig" and "Countisbury" suggests that they might be different historical forms of the same place name.

The Vikings Exploited England's Western Coastal Areas

In The Vikings in England (Manchester University Press [2006]), Dawn M. Hadley examines the strategic importance of coastal areas during Viking raids, emphasising the Vikings' ability to exploit maritime routes, particularly along England's western coast.

Hadley discusses Viking ships using sea routes to quickly reach and attack coastal towns, making the most of their ability to move fast and control important waterways. While Hadley's book doesn't specifically mention Countisbury, it highlights how important coastal locations were for Viking fast raids using the sea to their advantage in battles.

The ability to quickly access Countisbury Wind Hill by sea would have made it a potential target for Viking raids. Conversely, Wind Hill was a strategic defensive point for the Anglo-Saxons, underlining the role of coastal sites in the military dynamics of the time.

Hadley's analysis highlights the tactical importance of the western seaways in the Vikings' raiding strategies. Among these debates, the strategic position of Countisbury Wind Hill, along with archaeological evidence and historical descriptions, reinforces its identification as the likely site of Cynwit. 

This perspective is supported by a range of studies and aligns with accounts from primary sources, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and Welsh Bishop Asser's biography of Alfred the Great, Vita Ælfredi regis Angul Saxonum, written circa 893.

Wind Hill: A Highly Defensible Iron Age Fort

Wind Hill at Countisbury includes two protected areas with the artificial defences of a British Iron Age promontory fort. It is the highest hill within the enclosed area (Historic England 1020807).

The hillfort utilised steep natural defences on three sides, created by the precipitous sea cliffs overlooking Lynmouth Bay to the north, and the deep valleys of the East Lyn River to the south.

A high rampart and ditch completed the defensive circuit across the only gentle approach from the east, enclosing a large, irregular area of about 35 hectares equivalent to about 86.5 acres (ibid).

The "most spectacular" prominent linear earthwork on Wind Hill, referred to as Countisbury Camp, is characterised by a substantial bank and ditch on its eastern side, effectively isolating the end of the hill spur to create a "promontory fort" (National Trust, 2024).

This defensive structure features a central, straightforward entrance and intersects with the primary road leading to Lynmouth (National Trust, Record ID: 100256 / MNA108011).

In summary, a combination of natural and man-made defences created a stronghold that was highly defensible against attacks (Historic England L.E.N. 1020807, Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort).

The Importance of Military Actions in Early Medieval England

Military actions were vital in early medieval England for several reasons. They were essential for repelling Viking invasions, helping communities defend their lands and maintain autonomy. Local victories fostered pride and unity, encouraging cooperation among groups.

Additionally, these military efforts influenced power dynamics, allowing successful leaders to gain authority and shape political structures. Such struggles also contributed to a distinct English identity while safeguarding local economies from raiders, enabling communities to thrive.

The Dawn of Viking Incursions

The Vikings are often stereotyped as brutal and fearsome seafarers, infamous for their raids across the British Isles and the North Atlantic during the early Middle Ages. However, this portrayal overlooks the multifaceted nature of Viking society.

The Vikings were also skilled traders, settlers, and farmers, contributing to the development of vibrant trade networks across Europe, Asia, and the Americas (Richards, 2018).

Moreover, they had a rich cultural heritage, including a sophisticated artistic tradition and a distinct linguistic legacy that shaped the languages of many regions they encountered (Fitzhugh, 2009; Guðbjörnsson, 2006).

Thus, while their violent incursions and quests for portable wealth are well-documented, the Vikings' contributions to commerce, settlement and culture reflect their more complex role in history.

Their overseas expansion marked the first time in European history that people crossed the Atlantic.

The recorded arrival of Danish ships in 787 AD marks the onset of Viking incursions into England; Asser called it a ‘great fleet of pagans’ (Keynes and Lapidge 1983, p.238, f.n. 44). This was part of a broader pattern of Norse exploration, looting and settlement, during the 'Viking Age' which lasted until 1066. 

Ubba Ragnarsson and the Viking Assault on Early England

The Danish Viking leader Ubba Ragnarsson (Old Norse: Ubbi; died 878), features in accounts of the "Great Heathen Army" invasion of early England during the autumn of 865 AD. Ubbi [Hubba, Ubba, or Ubbo] (IJssennagger, N.L., 2017), is said to have commanded Viking incursions, allegedly alongside his brothers Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson.

History records that these Norse pagans aimed to seize England. After years of profitable raids, they apparently sought even greater wealth, consolidating their power, by forcibly taking control of the land.

A formidable force of "heathen men", comprising a warrior society of circa 3,000 people according to Historic England online, landed on the isle of Thanet in Kent (Butler, Josh). Numerous battles and substantial shifts in regional power dynamics followed, significantly altering early medieval England's political landscape.

The narrative surrounding the Viking invasions has been influenced by cultural storytelling. Nelleke Laure IJssennagger (2017) highlights how the historical accounts of the Viking "Great Heathen Army" in 865 AD, led by figures like Ubba and his brothers, have been influenced by myths.

Prelude to Cynwit: The Vikings Seize Chippenham

Over the winter of 877-878 AD, a Viking army led by Guthrum — Godrum or Guthorm, also called Aethelstan, d.890 — attacked and seized the Saxon town of Chippenham on the River Avon. The loss of Chippenham, "Cippanhamme" in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, marked a major turning point in the Saxon resistance.

Chippenham's strategic location in the heart of Wessex afforded the Vikings a strong foothold, undermining Saxon control and boosting Viking influence in the region. As a royal estate, Chippenham was directly associated with King Alfred and the royal family, making it a significant political and administrative centre.

King Alfred the Great was immediately forced into a temporary retreat, which also spurred a critical Saxon resurgence. From his refuge in the marshes of Somerset, Alfred reorganised his forces, leading to a significant victory at the Battle of Edington later in 878.

This turning point underscored the importance of strategic adaptation in the ongoing struggle.

The Vikings Blockade The Cynwit Civitas

In January 878, a Danish force of approximately 1,200 men, likely led by Hubba, Dux of the Fresians, crossed the Bristol Channel from Dyfed, southwestern Wales. Modern Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire were previously inhabited by the Celtic Demetae during the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age (Ritchie, M., 2018).

Some Celtic Iron Age (700 BC - 43 AD) hillforts were reoccupied by the Anglo-Saxons during the Viking raid period. King Alfred created a network of coastal hillforts and lookout points in Wessex, connected by a military road known as a Herepath or Herewag (Yorke, Barbara, Wessex in the early Middle Ages, 1995). This allowed his armies to monitor Viking movements at sea.

This author posits that the Wessex hillfort of Cynwit was Countisbury Wind Hill, above Lynmouth Bay on Exmoor, north Devon. Its strategic position and archaeology appear consistent with historical accounts.

Viking losses in leadership, warriors, and ships diminished the prospects of their Great Army for further conquests in the Anglo-Saxon territories.

Although Viking raids persisted in Early England after the Battle of Cynwit, their effects were significantly curtailed. This analysis posits that the events at Cynwit served as a catalyst for renewed Saxon resistance, and prompted crucial strategic adaptations by King Alfred.

The Cultural and Political Landscape of Early Medieval England

The Battle of Cynwit is described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and in the Welsh Bishop Asser's biography of King Alfred 'The Great': Vita Ælfredi regis Angul Saxonum, written circa 893 (Lapidge and Keynes [transl.]. Cambridge University Press, 1983).

Asser's valuable biography includes descriptions of Alfred's efforts to promote learning and religious devotion, as well as his strategies to consolidate power and defend his kingdom against Norse invaders.

During the late 9th century, the Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of England were referred to as "Englisc". While the term 'Anglo-Saxon' is considered loaded, in an appropriate historical context it's been used to describe the early medieval period and culture of England.

Englisc is the Old English word for the English people and their language, distinguishing them from the Norse and other groups present in the region at the time.

The term "Englisc" reflects the cultural and linguistic identity of the Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Each Anglo-Saxon kingdom had its own distinct dialect, which, over time, evolved collectively into what we now call Old English (Wormald, Patrick, "The Making of Angelcynn", 1994).

Before Alfred the Great's attempts to unify Early Medieval England, the fragmented region consisted of autonomous states including Angles, Saxons, Scandinavians and Germanic Jutish settlers, among others. 

These peoples migrated to post-Roman Britannia between the 5th and 8th centuries AD. The Early English Heptarchy consisted of seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and East Anglia (The Historical Association, 2024). The Heptarchy continued to evolve until the eventual unification of England in the 9th and 10th centuries.

Other, smaller kingdoms and territories contributed to the dynamic political landscape of early medieval England, often forming alliances or engaging in conflicts with the larger kingdoms of the Heptarchy. The boundaries and influence of these regions were fluid.

Religious and Cultural Dynamics in Early England

While Christianity was well-established among the ruling elites and in many towns by 878 AD, the level of adherence varied significantly, particularly in rural areas and among different groups within Early England's population.

Some people had no religion at all while others were polytheistic, retaining traditional beliefs alongside the emerging Christian faith. This blend of religious practices reflected the gradual and uneven process of Christianisation across these isles. A lack of unity in religion and identity left these islands vulnerable to external threats, particularly from the Vikings.

The absence of a centralised political or cultural identity is crucial for understanding the geopolitical dynamics of the period. The term 'Anglecynn,' meaning 'people of the Angles,' reflects a regional rather than national identity, with individuals aligning more closely with their local communities or tribes. This regionalism likely shaped political alliances, trade, and military organisation.

In summary, cultural and religious differences between monotheistic Christian Anglo-Saxon factions and the pagan, polytheistic Vikings were factors in their conflicts. These differing belief systems contributed to cultural tensions, motivations for raids, and the dynamics of warfare during the Viking Age circa 800 until 1066 AD.

Religious beliefs shaped the strategies and justifications for warfare. Viking leaders could frame their conquests as acts of valour against a different faith, while Anglo-Saxons viewed their defence of Christianity as a moral imperative.

Abels, Richard. Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. 1st Edition, Routledge, 1998. eBook published 30 September 2013. ISBN 9781315846286.

Anglo-Saxon | Definition, History, Language, Countries, Culture, & Facts. Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anglo-Saxon. October 2024.

Cook, Albert S. Asser's Life of King Alfred. Translated from the text of Stevenson’s edition. Project Gutenberg, 1906. Available at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/63384/63384-h/63384-h.htm#sec_54. October 2024.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Guthrum." Last updated September 4, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Guthrum. 

Glossary of Historical Terms and Personalities > October 2024.

Historical Association: Anglo-Saxons: a brief history. October 21, 2024. https://www.history.org.uk/primary/resource/3865/anglo-saxons-a-brief-history. October 2024.

Historic England: List Entry Number:1020807. Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort. October 2024.

Wiltshire Victoria County History. "The Anglo-Saxon Settlement."  Wiltshire Victoria County History, accessed October 24, 2024.  https://www.wiltshirehistory.org/chippenham-research/anglo-saxon-settlement. October 2024.

Historical Sources and Viking Activities

Active as a bishop, scholar, and biographer from at least 885 until his death in 909 AD, Asser's semi-hagiographic Life of Alfred (c.893) provides a valuable account of Alfred’s reign and accomplishments (Lloyd, J. E., & Lloyd, D. M., Dictionary of Welsh Biography, online, n.d).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 878 AD, originating during King Alfred's reign, places the Cynwit citadel in Devonshire: "And in the winter of this same year the brother of Ingwar and Healfden landed in Wessex, in Devonshire, with three and twenty ships" (Ingram, J.H., Transl., 1996).

"And there was he slain, and eight hundred men with him, and forty of his army. There also was taken the war-flag, which they called the RAVEN" (Unknown author, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1996 [ J. H. Ingram, Trans.]). 

The Raven war-flag (Old Norse: hrafnsmerki) was more than just a piece of cloth; it was a "beast of battle" and a powerful totem with animist roots (Rune Hjarnø Rasmussen, n.d.). A Viking leader's personal banner, it embodied their values, aspirations, and the martial spirit of the Norse people.

The Raven war-flag served as a symbolic representation of Viking identity, power, and beliefs. The Anglo-Saxons probably believed that these flags projected the evil powers of pagan idols. Such a war-flag (guðfani) they called "Raven" appears to symbolise the pagan god Odin, often depicted with the all-seeing ravens named Huginn and Muninn (Hrafnhildur Bodvarsdottir, 1976, p. 112).

Vikings -and their Norman descendents under William the Conqueror- apparently sought to improve their chances and frighten their enemies by invoking the power of the Allfather, Raven God of War. 

The limited availability of Danish Viking sources regarding the events of 878 AD can be attributed to their reliance on oral tradition, runic inscriptions, or treaties. There are virtually no written records left from Viking sources.

Additionally, their cultural emphasis on raiding and trading over record-keeping, along with the possible loss of any written records, contributed to this scarcity.

King Alfred as Architect of the English Political Identity ?

Paul Halsall (1996) states that "the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle stands as one of the rare literary records documenting England during the era between the Roman withdrawal and the Norman Conquest.

Compiled by monastic communities, its various iterations provide an invaluable perspective on the Anglo-Saxon people and their society" (Fordham University, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle on Alfred the Great").

Halsall notes the Chronicle's monastic origins, yet he calls it "a relatively impartial account of historical events". Halsall's online variant of the Chronicle focuses on the tumultuous reign of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex. This version, linked below, chronicles Alfred's struggles and achievements, during the Viking incursions of the ninth century, including the events of AD 878 (Halsall, P., 2024 [1996]):

See: Medieval Sourcebook online, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle on Alfred the Great". Halsall, Paul, ed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Excerpts. Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham University, 1996. 

King Alfred was not, as Orderic Vitalis claimed (Keynes, S., "The cult of Alfred the Great", 1999), the first king to rule over all of England, although he styled himself as rex Angulsaxonum in the latter part of his reign. That distinction is more appropriately given to his grandson, Æthelstan.

Æthelstan has been called the 'first King of England' (Foot, Sarah, 2012 [2011], Æthelstan: The First King of England). He ruled as King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 and became King of the English in 927, reigning until his death in 939. 

Nevertheless, Alfred was, as his obituary in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle notes, king over the entire English people except for, or outside of, the regions under Danish control (Insley, C., 2018, "The Making of Angelcynn: English Identity Before the Norman Conquest"). 

Insley posits that Alfred promoted the term Angelcynn in texts from the later part of his reign, to emphasise a unified identity among his people. He also fostered a shared sense of heritage between his West Mercian and West Saxon subjects. Through these efforts, Alfred has been regarded as the architect of the English political community (ibid).

History has recorded Alfred's contribution to the development of early English identity, yet scholarly interpretations of his motivations and the consequences of his policies remain subject to ongoing debate.

Some scholars, including Wormald (1999), Keynes (1998), and Foot (2011), argue that the idea of Alfred's policies having an immediate, unifying effect on national identity is an oversimplification. The process of identity formation was more complex and gradual than previously assumed.

Maureen Elizabeth Searing's thesis, "Alfred of Wessex: A Study in Accidental Greatness," explores the development of Alfred the Great's reputation (2009). Searing examines whether the title "Great" truly reflects Alfred's historical achievements, or is instead a product of later nationalistic movements.

Thomas (2003) wrote about the sense of English identity and cultural cohesion that had developed prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066. It 'played a significant role in preserving English traditions, language, and societal structures even after the Normans took control of England.' (Thomas, H.M., 2003, English Identity Before the Norman Conquest).

In summary, while King Alfred helped promote a sense of unity among the English by using the term Angelcynn and focusing on common heritage, some historians believe this was just the start of a long process.

It's been argued that Alfred’s efforts didn’t instantly create a strong national identity. Yet, H.M. Thomas (2003) points out that the English had developed a shared identity before the Normans arrived, which helped preserve their culture after the Norman Conquest in 1066.

Gaines (2015) concludes that had Alfred failed, England might have fallen to Viking rule much earlier, altering the course of its history. By defending Anglo-Saxon culture, implementing critical reforms, and leaving a lasting legacy of strong leadership, Alfred set the stage for future rulers to inherit a more unified and resilient England (Alfred the Great: The foundation of the English monarchy).

After the Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon elite was largely replaced by Normans, while the English identity was preserved and adapted in a new Anglo-Norman culture.

Acknowledging All Perspectives

While this article highlights King Alfred's military successes and their significance for the unification of England, it’s essential to consider the broader context of these events.

It is necessary to recognise the diversity of perspectives in early English history. A focus on Wessex triumphs often overshadows the complex realities faced by other regions and peoples, during this period.

In 1806, R.S. Vidal identified Northam's 'Bloody Corner' as the location of the fighting linked to the Battle of Cynuit (AD 878). However, scholars in the 20th century shifted their preference to Wind Hill, Countisbury, considering it a more likely site for the battle (Devon & Dartmoor HER No. MDV11743).

Rogers (1948) suggested that Hubbe the Dane, retreating toward his fleet at Appledore, was intercepted by the Saxons at 'Bloody Corner', where he was defeated and killed. Archaeological finds in the area include human remains, coins (now lost), and an ancient iron axe.

In 1890, a commemorative plaque was installed at the site, although it mistakenly dated the battle to AD 892 (Devon & Dartmoor HER No. SDV12738).

Cannington Parish, near Bridgewater, Somerset, has claimed Cannington Camp Park as the site of the same battle, "where Saxons under King Odda defeated Danish sea raiders who landed at nearby Combwich" [within the Sedgemoor district of Somerset] (HER No. 1006225).

Cannington's claim suggests that arx Cynwit could refer to Cannington Camp, a multimillennial univallate hillfort and national monument, located 1.5 kilometers west of the River Parrett's tidal estuary.

The emergence of a singular English identity in early medieval Britain is a complex issue that often overlooks the diverse influences and contributions of various groups, including the Celtic tribes, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Norse communities, and potentially North Sea Frisian people.

Moreover, the portrayal of Alfred as a unifying hero may overlook the ongoing local resistance and the diverse political landscape of the time, which included not only English kingdoms but also Norse settlers who had established their own systems of governance and cultural identities.

The concepts of "Anglo-Saxondom" and "Englishness" as cultural and ethnic identities are  discussed in modern scholarly debates (Hines, J. [Ed.], 2003, The Anglo-Saxon World. Blackwell Publishing).

Recognising these dynamics allows for a more nuanced understanding of early English history; one that acknowledges the contributions and experiences of all groups involved, rather than framing the narrative solely through the lens of Wessex's ascendance.

Evaluating Countisbury Castle (Wind Hill) as a Primary Candidate

Occurring “ante arcem Cynuit” —before the fortress of Cynuit—this battle probably took place at Countisbury Hillfort also called Wind Hill, National Grid Reference SS 73909 49477. Wind Hill, summit c.300 metres, is a few miles east of Combe Martin in North Devon.

Author J.J. Alexander -in Arx Cynuit. Devon and Cornwall Notes and Queries- considered Countisbury Wind Hill to be the historical Cynuit (1933, pp.310-313, 351-352). Countisbury Hill’s earthwork defences close to Lynmouth Bay is a protected monument. At around 260m high, it does look like a strong coastal defence position (Exmoor National Park HER, MDE1236, 2024).

Although it’s difficult to believe the Vikings landed near Lynmouth or rowed up the narrow, rocky Lyn rivers to Countisbury: their refined art of portaging, carrying and parking their light narrow boats overland, was one of their dogged methods of overcoming obstacles (The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, "Ship Over Land", 2023).

It’s not known how they reached the Cynwit civitas, yet those Viking forces intent on the conquest and settlement of England would have been singularly determined, and well-practiced.

Cynwit and Wind Hill at Countisbury would have been more than just defensive strongholds. Their high status and visibility would project power and influence over the region, indicating a site of significant social and political importance (Historic England, List Entry Number: 1020807). 

These hillforts were probably occupied year-round, which suggests they were central hubs for the local community, combining daily life with strategic oversight (ibid).

Given the strategic location of the hillfort at Countisbury, which is described as having steep natural defences, it can be inferred that access to water might have been limited, particularly from the east where the siege was focused.

Cynwit Hillfort Food and Water Supplies 

The West Saxons would have needed to rely on any available food and water within Cynwit fort itself, or potentially draw water from nearby streams or springs which are present today (National Trust). The East Lyn River runs to the south of Countisbury and flows through the East Lyn Valley.

The hillfort's occupants may have relied on local rivers, streams, and stored rainwater for water supplies. However, available food and water was likely insufficient to sustain the Cynwit hillfort for an extended period.

Asser's descriptions of the Viking siege suggest that a primary motivation for the Wessex ambush was to strike early, "before they began at all to suffer from such want" (Asser's Life of King Alfred, c. 893). The desperate Wessex fyrd ended the siege quickly by surprise at dawn, destroying Ubba and most of his army (ibid).

Phonetics and Place Names: The Countisbury-Cynwit Debate

The (English Place-Names Society [EPNS])  states that Charles Plummer and John Earle "were probably right" (Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, reissued 1952) in identifying Countisbury with the arx Cynuit of Asser (ch. 54), a place near the Devon coast".

However, the phonetic differences between "Cynwit" and "Countisbury" are too great to confirm the exact location. There is no concrete evidence to confirm that "Cynwitesbyrig" was an actual historical name used in Early English.

EPNS also states that distinguished Swedish academic Eilert Ekwall (1877-1964) shows that "Cunet" evolved into "Countisbury", derived from Welsh "cwn" (height), reflecting its elevated location. Asser’s description of the arx Cynuit being accessible only from the east aligns with Countisbury Hill (English Place Names Society]).

The term "burh" in Old English, meaning fort, parallels similar compound names, reinforcing the case for identifying Countisbury as the historical site in question. Yet, the arguments highlight the complexities of linking historical place names and understanding their origins, as well as the scholarly efforts to ascertain their historical significance and etymology.

Tracing the Name: Countisbury and Its Historical Context

Analysing the etymology for Countisbury: Contesberie, Domesday Book; Cuntesberia 1178 Pipe Rolls; -bir 1200, Curia Regis rolls. Cantebire, 1228 Feet of Fines (EPNS). Further analysis builds a case for Countisbury being Asser's arx Cynuit or Cynwit, stated to be a fort in chronicles and archaeology.

The etymology suggests that Countisbury served as a site of local governance with defensive significance, during the Early English/Early Medieval period (circa 410-1066).

Cynuit is identical with COUND and KENNET and with Cynwyd in Wales, but the name here refers to a hill, whose name (Cunétié or Cunétid) seems to be derived from the base kuno - ‘high’ in Welsh cwn.

Countisbury is thus Brit Cunét, to which was added an explanatory Old English BURG. Brit Cunét became normally Old Welsh Cynuit or Cynwit, Welsh Cynwyd.

Countisbury evolved from Cunét with the addition of "BURG" to clarify that it referred to a high place or a fortified hill. Thus, "Countisbury" can be understood as "the hill or fort of Cunét."

According to the Historic Environment Record for Exmoor National Park (ENPHER MEM25099), titled "Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury (Monument)," the estimated location of the 878 battle between the Saxons and Danes has been inferred from documentary evidence. ENPHER states that "this site is believed to be at Countisbury Castle".

Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel is a scholarly work by Plummer, where he compares different versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. 

In summary, Wind Hill emerges as a strong candidate for Asser's Cynwit. Situated with strategic defences a few miles from Combe Martin, Countisbury Hillfort/Wind Hill's historical, archaeological, and geographical attributes align with chronicled descriptions.

Etymological evidence and scholarly support further reinforce the case for Wind Hill, making it a compelling location for the Battle of Cynwit.

Wind Hill as a Military Lookout

During King Alfred’s time, Wind Hill’s vantage point would have been an important military lookout for monitoring Viking movements along the Bristol Channel.

Historical Significance of Wind Hill

As an Iron Age hillfort, Wind Hill had a long history of settlement and defensive use by 878 AD, making it historically, culturally, and symbolically important to local tribes.

Asser’s Account of Cynwit

Asser wrote that the Cynwit promontory fort, in which "the King’s thanes and their followers had shut themselves up", was “secure from every direction, except the east” (tutissimus est ab omni parte, nisi ab orientali). This description aligns with modern archaeological surveys.

Asser's writings provide some insights, but they are not comprehensive. The battle of Cynwit is mentioned within the broader context of Alfred's military campaigns, but without extensive details on its strategy, scale, or immediate consequences. 

Descriptions of the Siege in Alfred’s Biography

In some translations of Alfred’s biography, Asser states that the Cynwit stronghold, which he himself had "seen", was "thrown up in our fashion". The Danes were starving the stronghold of potable water and supplies, and so the Saxon militia launched a desperate dawn ambuscade. 

Asser’s Familiarity with Wind Hill

Asser would have been familiar with Wind Hill, from his trips along the Bristol Channel from St Davids, Pembrokeshire . The Exmoor location was, historically, part of the broader landscape of Wessex, where Alfred sought to unify and strengthen his kingdom against Viking invasions.

Cynwit: A Key Event in English History

This West Saxon triumph in 878 marked a pivotal moment in the struggle against Danish invasions. It set the stage for the eventual unification of England under the House of Wessex, the lineage from which several English monarchs descend.

The Unification of England: Alfred the Great and His Successors

In 886, Alfred the Great reclaimed London from the Danish Vikings and subsequently declared himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, a title he held until his death in 899.

During the early tenth-century, his descendants, Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) and Æthelstan (reigned 924–939), unified the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to establish the Kingdom of the English.

Ellis, Caitlin. "Alfred versus the Viking Great Army." The Historian, vol. 139, Autumn 2018, pp. 16–22. Available at: Academia.edu.

Whitelock, Dorothy. "Alfred." Encyclopaedia Britannica, September 2024. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-king-of-Wessex.

Visual Context and References

Our thesis includes maps and images to provide visual context. Extensive citations and references to reputable sources underpin our analysis.

Abels, Richard: Alfred The Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, The Medieval World. Essex, Longman, 1998.

Asser (Author); Keynes, Simon [Transl.] (1983): Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources. Penguin.

Asser. Life of King Alfred. Translated by Albert Beebe White and Wallace Notestein. In Source Problems in English History, edited by Albert Beebe White and Wallace Notestein, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1915. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/asser.asp.

Dot to Domesday (online): "Asser". URL: Http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/asser.htm.

English Heritage. (n.d.). Story of England. Retrieved October 23, 2024, from https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/.

Historic England (2024): "Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort (1020807)". National Heritage List for England.

Stenton, Frank. M. (1963):  Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford : Clarendon Press; Second Edition (1 Jan. 1963).

Influences on subsequent battles during Alfred's reign:

1. Boosted Morale: The West Saxon victory at Cynwit significantly uplifted Anglo-Saxon morale.

2. The death of Hubba and his elite warrior retinue diminished the Danes' morale, their order of battle, and their prospects for total conquest. 

3. The effective defence at Cynwit built confidence among both military and civilian populations.

4. Military Strategy: The tactics used at Cynwit, especially the surprise element and terrain advantage, shaped Alfred's future military strategies.

5. Alfred adopted more organized approaches to warfare, emphasising fortifications and establishing a network of burhs (fortified towns).

6. Unification of Forces: This victory solidified Alfred’s leadership and unified various factions within Wessex, essential for mobilizing resources and manpower against the Vikings, particularly the Great Heathen Army. 

7. Viking Disruption: The defeat at Cynwit weakened Viking confidence and disrupted their regional plans, giving Alfred time to regroup and strengthen his defences.

8. Alfred ultimately achieved victory over Guthrum at Edington in 878. 

9. Political Legitimacy: Alfred's victory at Cynwit made him a more respected and accepted leader, reinforcing his right to govern.

10. Alfred positioned himself as the protector of the Anglo-Saxon people, and forged crucial alliances with regional leaders for future engagements.

Discussing the Sources

Although the Vikings did not document their own history in books, we have knowledge of their global movements thanks to foreign chroniclers and narrators, who recorded their encounters with them (National Museum of Denmark, 2024).

The scarcity of Danish Viking sources about the events of 878 AD can be attributed to their reliance on oral tradition, runic inscriptions, and treaties. Also to their cultural focus on raiding and trading rather than record-keeping, and the potential loss of any such records.

Combe Martin historian John H. Moore states that "the Vikings left no place names in Devon (if we exclude Lundy which means Puffin Island). Yet a few Anglo-Danish personal names appear later in Cnut's time." (Sellman, 1962, p. 23).

Much of the historical narrative comes from Anglo-Saxon sources, which emphasise their own perspective and victories, and are therefore open to bias. While archaeological evidence offers some insights, it often requires interpretation and lacks detailed narratives.

Graham-Campbell, James (Author). The Viking World. London: Thames & Hudson, 1980. Frances Lincoln; Reprint edition with McGrail, Sean (Contributor), 2013.

National Museum of Denmark (2024): "Written Sources." https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/written-sources/.

The original manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, likely in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great (Hunter Blair, P., 1956).

We know of nine versions or fragments of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (ASC) historicity in existence, all of which vary—sometimes greatly—in content and quality. Importantly, this collection of texts provides a continuous narrative of English history from the 9th century to the 12th century, documenting key events, kings, and cultural shifts.

Historians agree that the Common Stock of the ASC, also referred to as the Early English Annals, was compiled into its current form between 890 and 892.

This occurred prior to Bishop Asser's use of a version of the Common Stock in his 893 AD work, The Life of King Alfred (Bately, 1985).

Æthelweard (d. 998), a 10th-century chronicler and ealdorman, authored the Chronicon Æthelweardi, a Latin version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He recorded events up to 878 but only briefly mentioned the battle at Cynwit, claiming that "in the end the Danes held the victory."

Elsewhere, Geoffrey Gaimer, a twelfth-century Anglo-Norman chronicler, asserts that Hubba landed from South Wales along the Exmoor coast, where he encountered the Saxons at a fort named Cynwit (National Trust, 100256 / MNA108011).

Gaimer's Anglo-Norman verse chronicle encompasses various historical events and figures, notably the confrontation between Hubba and the Saxons at Cynwit.

The Estoire des Engleis chronicles English history from the landing of Cerdic of Wessex in 495 to the death of King William Rufus in 1100.

Geoffrey Gaimar does not identify Wind Hill as the battle site. Written in Lincolnshire c.1136-37, Gaimer's work is the oldest surviving example of historiography in the French vernacular.

If Gaimer is reliable, the Vikings might have landed at Lynmouth and used the extensive defensive earthworks on Wind Hill to secure their beachhead.

The combination of a suitable landing site like Lynmouth and the defensive capabilities of Wind Hill, could have played a significant role in Viking attempts to establish a presence in the region.

Historical sources can be ambiguous, leading to varied interpretations. Asser, and Geoffrey Gaimar’s reliability as a source, are a subject of debate among historians.

Ancient and medieval chroniclers' accounts may be influenced by their perspective, the sources they had access to, and their intended audience. Their accounts are often blended with legend.

Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort, Lynton and Lynmouth - 1020807 | Historic England.

Gaimar (Author), Thomas Wright [ed.] (1850): The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle Of Geoffrey Gaimar. Kessinger Publishing, 2008. 

Hardy & Martin (1888): Lestorie des Engles solum la translacion maistre Geffrei Gaimar. London : Eyre and Spottiswoode.

Hunter Blair, Peter. An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England. 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1956.

National Trust Heritage Records | 100256 / MNA108011 | Countisbury Camp, Countisbury Castle or Wind Hill, Watersmeet.

Cynwit (878) and Englefield (870) in the Context of Viking Invasions

The Battle of Cynwit (878) and the preceding Battle of Englefield (870), are connected through the broader context of the Viking invasions of England during the late 9th century. Paul Hill covers the subject in his The Viking Wars of Alfred the Great (2015). 

The Battle of Englefield [Anglefield] occurred around 31 December 870, near Reading, Berkshire. This engagement marked a significant victory for the West Saxons over a Danish Viking army. It was one of several conflicts following the Viking invasion of Wessex in December 870 AD.

These battles were part of the Viking incursions into Anglo-Saxon territories. The Vikings aimed to conquer and settle in England, leading to numerous conflicts with the local Saxon forces.

At Englefield under the leadership of Æthelwulf, Ealdorman of Berkshire, the West Saxon forces successfully defeated the Viking contingent, killing one of their jarls and forcing the remainder to retreat. 

However, this triumph was short-lived, as subsequent battles, including the Battle of Reading in early 871, saw the Vikings regroup and counterattack against the Saxons. Reading was a significant victory for the Danish Viking army over the West Saxon forces.

These victories were separated by several years. Yet they were part of the ongoing struggle that eventually led to the establishment of a more unified England under Alfred the Great.

Alfred was King of the West Saxons from 871 to 886, and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 886 until his death in 899. His defensive strategies were crucial in preventing the total subjugation of Wessex, the last remaining Anglo-Saxon kingdom.

In summary, Englefield and Cynuit highlight the strategic importance of local leadership, and early signs that the Anglo-Saxons were able to rally and defend against Viking forces.

Abels, Richard. Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Longman, 1998.

Berkshire History | David Nash Ford (2003).

Exmoor National Park MEM25099 - Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury (Monument).

Viking Ship Museum Roskilde (2024): The Vikings in England by Barbara Højlund.

865 CE: The Great Heathen Army’s Arrival in England

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) and tradition: Viking commander Hubba/Ubba led a large Viking invasion on England during 865 CE, along with his brothers Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson. The size of a large Viking army should likely be measured in thousands rather than hundreds (Stenton, F.M., Anglo-Saxon England, 1971).

While Ubba is frequently associated with Ubbe Ragnarrsson in popular narratives, the historical evidence does not conclusively confirm this identification.

The figure of Ubba remains somewhat enigmatic, reflecting the complexities of Viking history and the interpretation of ancient texts. However, unlike their previous forays, the heathens were not here just for loot. They wanted to conquer the Early English kingdoms and settle the land.

The "heathen army" wintered in East Anglia; they are recorded as moving on to capture York in 866 CE, which led to the death of King Aella of Northumbria.

Oral and written traditions hold that the Danes sought to avenge the execution of Ragnar Lodbrok at the hands of the Anglo-Saxon King Aella of Northumbria (Waggoner, Ben, 2015). 

According to Viking Sagas, a genre of Old Norse literature, Ragnar was captured and killed by Aella. This sparked outrage among the Danes and led to subsequent invasions aimed at avenging his death.

These sagas were written in Iceland, where the oral traditions of the Viking Age were transcribed into written form. They blend historical events with mythological elements.

The Cambridge History of Scandinavia.

The Great Viking Army

This great army comprised up to 3,000 people; the exact numbers are difficult to determine due to the nature of the records. Specifically, the ASC describes the arrival of the Great Army and its impact on England.

According to Barbara Højlund at the Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde (n.d.), the Vikings conquered the whole of Northumbria, parts of Mercia, and East Anglia.

In the earliest version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dating from the 9th to 12th centuries, this coalition of Scandinavian pagans is described in Old English as "micel here," meaning "Great Army" (Swanton, 1996).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the most important written work in English before the Norman Conquest. The Parker Chronicle, also known as the A-version, is the oldest surviving manuscript (Swanton, 1996).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions a Viking leader named Ragnall or Reginherus, who some historians believe to be the "Danish Viking hero king" Ragnar Lothbrok, also known as Lodbrok.

However, the Chronicle does not specifically mention that these Viking leaders were avenging the death of their father, Ragnar Lodbrok.

This narrative comes primarily from later Norse sagas and other medieval sources, such as the Ragnarssona þáttr (The Tale of Ragnar’s Sons) and the Gesta Danorum (Deeds of the Danes) by the twelfth-century author Saxo Grammaticus.

Poor literacy standards in the contemporary Scandinavia left us very few credible Viking sources.

Britannica (2023): Ragnar Lothbrok, Viking hero| National Trust (2015-2024): Heritage Record 100256 / MNA108011.

Read more at The Historical Association (2011): The Vikings in Britain: a brief history.

The Icelandic Saga Database: https://sagadb.org.

Establishment of the Danelaw

The successful campaigns of the Great Heathen Army resulted in the establishment of the Danelaw —Dena lage — a region in Scandinavian-settled England where Danish laws and customs prevailed.

The Danelaw arose from the conquest and settlement of large parts of eastern and northern England by Danish Vikings in the late ninth century, with only Wessex continuing to resist (Thomas, Alexander. "The Danelaw, 9th-11th Century", 2023).

How Ealdorman Odda Defeated the Viking Siege

The social and political structures of Anglo-Saxon England included ealdormen as high-ranking nobles. Ealdormen managed regions and served as military leaders (Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary).

1. Strategic Use of Terrain

• Viking Misjudgment: The Vikings, led by Hubba/Ubba, likely assumed that the Saxons were trapped within the fort with no escape route, leading them to besiege it.

• Asser’s account suggests that the Vikings expected to starve the defenders into surrender, misjudging the Saxons' ability to launch a counterattack.

• Saxon Advantage: The West Saxons, familiar with the local terrain, could have used the difficult approach to their advantage.

2. The Element of Surprise

• Both Asser’s account and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle emphasize the surprise nature of the Saxon attack.

• The Saxons, likely aware that they couldn’t withstand a prolonged siege, chose to act decisively.

• Asser describes how the West Saxon forces, led by Ealdorman Odda, sallied out of the hillfort at dawn and caught the Vikings off guard.

• Timing of the Attack: The dawn attack was a crucial factor. The Vikings would have been least prepared at this time, possibly still resting or in disarray from their encampment.

• The suddenness of the attack gave the Saxons a psychological advantage, as the Vikings were not expecting a fight so soon after setting up their siege.

• Tactical Surprise: By remaining quiet within the fort, the Saxons led the Vikings to believe they were passive and waiting for starvation.

• When the Saxons surged out, they likely attacked with intensity and speed, overwhelming the Vikings, who were unprepared for battle.

3. Viking Overconfidence

• The Vikings, led by Hubba/Ubba, were part of a larger Viking campaign that had been devastating Anglo-Saxon territories for years.

• They had just spent the winter in Dyfed (Southwest Wales) and likely expected to continue their successful raids in Devon.

• Their confidence was probably bolstered by their numbers (estimated at around 1200 men).

• Their possession of the Raven Banner, a Viking symbol believed to guarantee victory.

• The Danes underestimated the Saxons.

4. Ambush Tactics

• The Saxons could have positioned themselves strategically along the narrow paths leading to the fort, attacking the Vikings in small, isolated groups.

• This would have minimized the effectiveness of the Viking shield wall, which required a flat, open battlefield to operate efficiently.

• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that 840 Vikings were killed, including Hubba/Ubba.

Hubba's Raven Banner

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle & Asser's biography of King Alfred state that the Anglo-Saxons captured the Vikings' war-flag [totem or banner], at Cynuit:

And the same winter the brother of Hingwar and of Halfdene came with twenty-three ships to Devonshire in Wessex; and he was there slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his army: and there was taken the war-flag which they called the Raven (Giles, J.A. [1914], The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

In translations of the Life of King Alfred (893 CE), Asser described the fortifications at the arx Cynuit: "the ramparts thrown up in our fashion" (moenia nostro more erecta), or "walls erected in our custom", as he himself had "seen".

Asser's manuscript survived to modern times in only one copy which was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731. Asser’s work was reconstructed from earlier transcriptions and the inclusion of Asser’s material by other early writers (Gallagher, 2021). 

Gallagher, Robert: Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters. The English Historical Review, Volume 136, Issue 581, August 2021.

Turning the Tide: The West Saxon Resistance 

Conquering Wessex, the last surviving Anglo-Saxon kingdom, was crucial for Viking dominance. By attacking both Chippenham and the arx Cynuit almost simultaneously, the Vikings put immense pressure on Alfred and his forces. 

With King Alfred on the run, the West Saxons, trapped, encircled and running out of water, managed to defeat Hubba's army. This victory must have been a huge morale boost for the local population and for King Alfred.

Moreover, Earl Odda's militia helped to stop the Vikings' domination of England. And their tactics probably influenced their King's eventual victory over the Great Heathen Army, later that same year.

Ancient hillforts were fortified structures and refuges, strategically placed, and typically encircled by one or more series of embankments and trenches. Timber and clay created a defensive wall or rampart. The name Countisbury [Cunsbear in antiquarian descriptions] can also be transcribed as "the headland camp" (The National Trust, 2024).

A layer of stone, called a revetment, supported the sides of embankments. There are several ancient hillforts in Devon, commonly situated on bluffs, headlands, spurs, or promontories

DBpedia.org: Battle of Cynwit (878 CE).

MEM25099 - Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury - The Historic Environment Record for Exmoor National Park (exmoorher.co.uk).

National Trust Record ID: 100256 / MNA108011: Countisbury Camp, Countisbury Castle or Wind Hill, Watersmeet.

Viking Leader Guthrum | Viking, Viking Invasion & England | Britannica.

Asser's Life of King Alfred; 54 "The Danes Defeated at Cynwit".

Keynes, Simon; Lapidge, Michael (1983). Alfred the Great, Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin.

Historic England: Hillforts.

Alfred and the Cakes

When the Vikings seized Chippenham, early in 878: King Alfred and a small retinue fled to Athelney, Bridgwater, in the marshes of Somerset. According to history, it was around this time that a dejected King Alfred 'burned some cakes' at the home of a peasant woman.

Alfred and the men of Somerset continued to resist the Vikings, while Wessex and potentially England appeared to be lost before the West Saxons turned the tables. 

King Alfred and the Cakes (historic-uk.com)

Asser's Life of King Alfred: "The Danes Defeated at Cynwit".

The Saxon victory at Cynwit was also recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 878 CE.

National Trust MNA108011 | National Trust Heritage Records: Wind Hill [Countisbury Castle].

The Megalithic Portal: Wind Hill - Hillfort in England in Devon.

Rayner, Michael (2006): English battlefields : 500 battlefields that shaped English history - "Countisbury Hill". The History Press.

The "Heathens Cut Down" 

According to the Life—one of the most important sources of information on Alfred the Great —the Danes attempted to starve the Cynwit populace, believing it to be unprepared for battle.

Asser wrote that "the Christians, before they began at all to suffer from such want, being inspired by Heaven, and judging it much better to gain either victory or death, sallied out suddenly upon the heathen at daybreak.”

[Asser continues] “And from the first, cut [the Danes] down in great numbers, slaying also their king [Hubba alt. Ubbe], so that few escaped to their ships" ("The Danes Defeated at Cynwit").

Despite their fighting prowess, Viking raiders often found themselves outmatched against organised professional soldiers who were well-equipped and supported by the king.

"The Vikings lost quite often, and mass graves show failed raids" (Roesdahl, 2023, Aarhus University, Denmark). 

The Chronicon Æthelweardi

Æthelweard [Ethelward] (d. 998), a 10th-century chronicler and ealdorman, wrote a Latin version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle known as the Chronicon Æthelweardi. Æthelweard details the events leading up to 878, yet he only briefly reported the battle at Cynwit and says, curiously, that "in the end the Danes held the victory".

The Danes buried their dead after the battle, including Hubba their leader. Æthelweard acknowledges their resilience and determination; even in defeat they appeared to be masters of the battlefield. 

According to an ancient Chronicle cited in the 1770s by the antiquarian scholar Thomas Hearne (Archeologia, Volume VII): when the Danes discovered the fallen warriors Hinguar and Hubba, they reverently carried them to a nearby mountain and erected a sacred memorial. 

The exact burial location is not known, and such information is merely part of the myth around Cynwit. Yet Æthelweard's accounts provide valuable insights into the history of Anglo-Saxon England.

He had familial ties to the royal lineage, being a descendant of King Æthelred I of Wessex, an Anglo-Saxon monarch and older sibling of Alfred the Great.

Campbell, A. ed. (1962): The chronicle of Æthelweard. London. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 

Lack of Evidence for Countisbury Wind Hill as Arx Cynuit

Neither the archaeological evidence nor the historical records from that time, including the corpus of Anglo-Saxon Chronicles and the writings of Asser, provide clear geographical details that would definitively identify Countisbury Hill, or any other candidate, as the site of the arx Cynwit in the year 878.

The interpretation of historical and linguistic evidence often involves a degree of uncertainty, and new findings can lead to revisions in our understanding of historical events.

Alternative Sites for Cynwit 

Kenwith Castle (Torridge, Northam) has been suggested; "The hill is identified by Vidal with the Saxon defensive position before a decisive defeat of the Danes in 878 which is named the "Battle of Cynuit" by the contemporary [Prelate Chronicler] Asser" (Historic England, 2023).

Also called Cynwit, Cynuit and Kenwic, and once known as Henni Castle and Henniborough, Kenwith Castle is situated at the upper end of a small valley on the north-west of Bideford, a little over a mile distant.

Cannington Parish Council states that "Cannington Hill is believed to be the site of a battle in AD878 when the Saxons under King Odda defeated a force of Danish sea raiders who landed at nearby Combwich". This suggests that arx Cynwit could be Cannington Camp which is 1.5 kilometres west of the tidal estuary of the River Parrett.

Like the rest of the candidates: Historic England states that "more research is essential" to challenge "the widely accepted belief" that the battle took place at Cannington Hill, near Bridgwater in Somerset.

The Devonshire Association (Sept. 2023) posits that "the battle’s more plausible location, according to the historical landscape and the military and tenurial history of the Torridge Valley, is [350m south of Woolleigh Bridge] at the Castle Hill settlement near Beaford".

A Compelling Case for Countisbury Hillfort as the Battle Site 

Documentary evidence such as Asser, and geographical features described in contemporary accounts, suggest the pivotal battle of Cynwit a.k.a Cynuit took place at Countisbury Castle above Lynmouth, Devon.

Note that Asser mentions the arx Cynuit is only accessible from the eastern side, which aligns with Countisbury Hill, where the eastern approach is the easiest route (EPNS, Nottingham University, 2024).

Moreover, The English Place-Names Society (EPNS) states that "Plummer was probably right (Two Saxon Chronicles ii, 93) in identifying Countisbury with the arx Cynuit of Asser (c. 54), a place near the Devon coast where Ubba, brother of Ivarr the Boneless, suffered defeat" (ibid).

EPNS adds that W.H. Stevenson [a pioneer of Anglo-Saxon studies] critiqued this identification on phonological and formal grounds (Asser's Life of Alfred, 1904, p. 265, note 3).

Riley & Wilson-North (2001): state that Wind Hill's classic univallate promontory hillfort encloses an area of 35 hectares, or about 86.5 acres. The monument typically comprises a high bank rampart and ditch, denying easy access for raiders (The Field Archaeology of Exmoor).

The British Iron Age monument (c500 BC - 43 AD) is one of the largest fortifications in Britain, and the highest hill within the enclosed area.

During the Iron Age, hillforts were a common type of settlement. These fortified sites, often located on high ground for strategic reasons, were used by communities to protect their population and resources.

English Place-Names Society [EPNS] (2024): Survey of English Place-Names. "Countisbury".

Historic England (2024): Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort. List Entry Number: 1020807.

Harding, Dennis (2012): Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond, published by Oxford University Press.

Ivar the Boneless | Biography, Battles, & Facts | Britannica.

Riley, Hazel, & Wilson-North, Robert (2001): The Field Archaeology of Exmoor. English Heritage.

Towering above the eastern flank of the Lyn Gorge, the prominent Wind Hill affords uninterrupted vistas across the Bristol Channel towards what is now Wales. 

According to etymological roots (English Place-names Society, 2024) ‘Cynwit’ or ‘Cynuit’ is more likely to denote a fortified hill or elevated place, associated with a noble family. 

Viking raids often aimed at wealthy settlements or areas with valuable resources. If Cynwit was associated with a noble family, it might have been seen as a source of loot, wealth, and supplies.

In summary, the documentary evidence, geographical features, and historical accounts suggest that the pivotal Battle of Cynwit took place at Countisbury Hillfort, also known as Wind Hill. This site matches Asser's descriptions, and etymological roots support its identification.

Historians like Christopher Plummer and archaeological findings further reinforce this, highlighting the site's strategic importance and noble associations, making it a credible location for the battle.

Linguistic and Historical Insights into Cynwit and Countisbury

It’s possible that the names “Cynwit” and “Countisbury” have roots in Celtic language, given the historical existence of Celtic tribes in the British Isles, particularly in what is now known as North Devon.

Celts tended to name locations after physical landmarks, local myths, or significant events (Mills, A.D., Oxford Reference, 2011). 

Nonetheless, the precise origins of the names “Cynwit” or “Countisbury” remain unclear. We have to consider that the names of many UK locations have changed over the centuries, reflecting the influence of various languages and cultures.

The name “Cynwit” could potentially be derived from Celtic words or roots, as is common with many place names in regions with Celtic history. “Burh,” as recorded in Old English, serves as a translation of the Latin term arx.

Countisbury Wind Hill (NGR SS 7395 4930) could simply have been a Celtic fortress; Latin arx or Old English burh, called Cynwit [Cynuit] (Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names). In Anglo-Saxon, cyn translates to modern English kin, and to noble family.

This connection to noble families may add a layer of significance to the name "Cynwit," suggesting it could have been associated with a site of importance to a particular noble lineage or clan.

The Old English terms “burh” and “burg” evolved from the Proto-Germanic word “burg”, which is related to the verb “berg”, meaning “to shut in for protection”. These terms share a common origin with the German word “Burg”, the Dutch word “burcht”, and the Scandinavian word “borg”.

Beyond the English origins, these terms were occasionally used in Old English adaptations or variations of indigenous place names. This includes the Brittonic or Celtic term “dunon” for fortress, and the Welsh term “caer” for fortress.

These terms have variously developed from OE into “borough”, “burg”, "berry", and [Countis] "bury". Notably, Southeast England's [Canter]bury, Suffolk: [Alde]burgh, and Scotland: “[Edin] burgh”.

EPNS: Survey of English Place Names: "Countisbury".

Oxford Academic (2012): Burhs and Boroughs.

The History of England: Burghal Hideage.

However, Devon's people are predominantly of Celtic origin, and the Celtic or Common Brittonic language (which developed into Cornish) was spoken in several distinct tongues, well into the Middle Ages.

Welsh, Cornish and Breton are related languages descending from ancient Brittonic (Brythonic), the pre-Roman and Roman-era Celtic languages of Great Britain.

Cornish and Breton are more closely related to each other, with the Welsh being the more unique of the three languages (Ball, M.J. ; Müller, Nicole, 2009).

The Old English phrase “mid his ágnum burhwarum” translates to “with his own townspeople” in modern English. Whilst it's fun playing with linguistics, we still have no answers.

In Old Welsh, Cunēt is suggested to mean “count” or “reckoning”. It is also associated with a fortified place, and with a Romano-British large-walled place on the River Kennet, Wiltshire: Cunetio, which might later have been occupied by an Anglo-Saxon chieftain. 

Countisbury could derive from Cunēt to which was added an explanatory suffix in Old English (450 AD -1100 AD). At a stretch we arrive at the word Cynuit (Cunētsburh/Cunētsbury).

Old Welsh or Hen Gymraeg refers to the period of the Welsh language in use from approximately 800 AD to the early part of the 12th century. Old Welsh features in a number of manuscripts, and as glosses (notations) on Latin texts.

The History Files: Post-Roman Britain - Introduction to Celtic Devon.

Omniglot: Old Welsh Writing.

A fusion of Old Welsh and Old English reflects the historical significance of this fortified location: a place for counting, strategy, and defense. The Welsh Church chronicler Asserius Menevensis wrote in Latin, yet his writings show Old Welsh influences.

Alfred's court was multicultural, including scholars from various regions of Britain and mainland Europe. This speculation still fits the timeframe; and as the English Place-names Society (EPNS) notes: Asser's native Old Welsh language appears to have influenced his spelling conventions, such as his use of Celtic and Old Welsh forms for names.

The English Place-names Society (2024): "Countisbury - Major Settlement in the Parish of Countisbury".

John Asser | Catholic Answers Encyclopedia.

Though Cynwit's origins and the battle site remain unknown: EPNS adds that "on the phonological side it should be pointed out that Cynwit [Cynuit] is only one of the numerous Welsh spellings of Anglo-Saxon names found in [Welsh chronicler] Asser".

Placing the Ancient Cynwit in a Modern Context

To speculate: the Athletes’ Village from the London 2012 Olympics, which once accommodated 17,000 athletes, has been repurposed into the East Village. It now boasts more than 2,800 residences, with an additional 2,000 in the pipeline.

According to the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park website (2024): East Village is currently a thriving community of approximately 6,000 residents, featuring three playgrounds for children and 35 acres of open spaces and parks.

This analogy, while simplistic, emboldens the case for Wind Hill. If the West Saxons occupied the entire enclosure of 85.5 acres on Wind Hill: there could have been a few thousand people available to Earl Odda in January 878. 

The specific numbers of West Saxons at Cynwit are not known, and the West Saxons might not have occupied the entire area. Yet the available fyrd militia routed Hubba's Viking force.

Factors such as training, morale, and leadership would also play significant roles.

While this comparison is illustrative, it serves to help readers visualise the potential scale of the West Saxon presence and the scale of the battle.

It's worth pointing out that the speculative nature of ancient population estimates, and the complexity of military dynamics, means that this analogy would not hold up under rigorous scrutiny.

The London 2012 Athletes’ Village - East Village.

The Evidence from Asser the Prelate Scribe 

Our understanding of ninth-century Britain, this transformative period, and the rise of Wessex, would be considerably limited without the information provided in Alfred's biography.

By the end of the century, the four distinct and influential Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that were present at the century’s onset—Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex—had consolidated into the single kingdom of Wessex.

Asserius Menevensis (c. 885-909 CE) described Cynwit, in his biography (893 CE) of King Alfred. Alfred ‘the Great’ ruled Wessex at the time, and later became King of all Anglo-Saxons. Most of the public transactions are found in the pages of the Saxon Chronicle.

According to Asser: the Viking army led by Hubba or Ubbe (brother of Ivar the Boneless), sailed from Dyfed with "twenty-three ships to Devon in Wessex. He was there slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his army. And there was taken the war-flag which they called the Raven" (Cook, A. S., Life of King Alfred, transl. 1906).

Asser—Bishop Asser—would have known Countisbury Hill as a conspicuous landmark which he says in the Life “as I myself have seen”, on his Bristol Channel trips from St David's, Dyfed, southwestern Wales.

Asser also noted that the arx Cynwit could only be approached from the eastern side, matching the geographical features of Countisbury Hill. Asser’s detailed account implies that he visited the battle site at Cynwit. Furthermore, the Welsh would have had a long-standing familiarity with Countisbury.

The Anglo-Saxon King's Thanes

Thus far, we have left out one important piece of information from Asser's account of Cynwit. One translation of the Life states the King's thanes [thegns or lords] had shut themselves up for safety. Another version provided by Fordham University describes them as the King's followers.

Before the Normans conquered England in 1066, thanes were lords or free followers ranked similar to a feudal baron and knight after the Conquest. Wealthier thanes would also have maintained their own household troops.

Thanes were aristocrats who owned substantial land in one or more counties in Anglo-Saxon England. The word thane, ranking below noble ealdormen, appears in the laws before King Aethelstan died in 939.

Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook (fordham.edu)

Britannica: thane or feudal lord

The Cynwit West-Saxon Garrison in 878 CE

The Cynwit garrison described by Asser might have been composed of royal officials or retainers with judicial and military functions, above the common ceorl and secondary to Ealdorman Odda.

If that were true, it suggests Cynwit, possibly at Countisbury Hill comprising 35 hectares, was a significant Wessex stronghold and strategic target for Hubba's army. However, the actual site of the battle at Cynwit will probably never be known.

While exact numbers are not documented, it is reasonable to estimate that several hundred to a few thousand Anglo-Saxon militiamen, including elite warrior thanes and their household troops, could have been present at Cynwit. This would have provided a formidable defence against the Viking forces.

Asser's Reliability

Literary critic, linguist and scholar Albert S. Cook (1906) reminds us that "Asser is an authority to be used with criticism and caution". Yet, "he is an authority nevertheless, and one whose statements are not to be set aside without adequate reason."

Asser's panegyric Life of Alfred probably overstates Alfred's achievements. Nevertheless, it is widely regarded as the most authoritative source on Alfred's life and reign. Additionally, the work may have served to increase Alfred’s stature among contemporary Welsh rulers, such as Hywel ap Rhys (r. c. 840–886) who had recently accepted Alfred as their overlord.

By highlighting Alfred’s accomplishments, Asser aimed to reinforce Alfred’s authority and legitimacy as a ruler. Albert S. Cook (1906) also cautioned that neither the stories of Alfred burning cakes or the Viking Raven war-flag at Cynwit have any basis in fact (Asser's Life of King Alfred, transl. from the text of W.H. Stevenson's edition).

Such stories are borrowed from Norse Sagas about Ragnar, and Archbishop Matthew Parker may have added to Asser's manuscript in the sixteenth-century (Cook, Albert S., 1906). Moreover, traditional versions derived from chronicles include popular myths such as King Alfred burning the cakes, and the Danes' raven banner. 

Robert Gallagher’s research (2021) has provided new insights into Asser’s Life of King Alfred. By examining the vocabulary and phrasing used in both Asser’s biography and various Anglo-Saxon charters, Gallagher identified several previously unnoticed connections.

Gallagher states that these findings support the authenticity of Asser’s work as a genuine text from the late ninth century (Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters).

Asser's life of King Alfred by Asser, John, d. 909; Cook, Albert S. (Albert Stanburrough), 1853-1927. Boston, New York : Ginn & company.

Gallagher, Robert. “Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters.” The English Historical Review, vol. 136, no. 581, August 2021, pp. 773–808. Https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceab276. 

The legendary Viking hero Ragnar Lodbrok is said to be the father of Ubba and his brothers. However, there is no contemporary evidence in the annals to support this assertion. The connection between Ubba and Ragnar Lodbrok appears in later sagas and legends.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a primary source, provides a chronological account of events but does not name Ubba as the leader at the Battle of Cynwit.
Asser’s Life of King Alfred also does not name the Viking leader at Cynwit but provides context for the events of the time.

Discussing the Size of Ninth-Century Danish Armies

Frank M. Stenton, in Anglo-Saxon England (1971), highlights the challenges of accurately estimating the size of ninth-century Danish armies. Historical sources frequently record the number of Viking ships in a fleet but provide scant information regarding the number of warriors each vessel carried.

The size of Viking forces depended on the purpose of the expedition and the resources available. Based on the available evidence, it is suggested that during the events on the Devonshire coast in 878 AD, each longship may have transported up to fifty individuals. 

Skuldelev 2 – the 11th century great Viking longship discovered in 1957- is a fast war vessel designed to transport 65-70 warriors. This chieftain’s ship is akin to those celebrated in ancient Old Norse skaldic poetry, and sagas (Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde).

Skuldelev 2 was discovered during underwater archaeological explorations by divers in Peberrenden, Roskilde Fjord. It was excavated alongside other Skuldelev ships in 1962. Tree-ring analysis of the timber show that Skuldelev 2 was built of oak, near Dublin around 1042.

Initially, the ship's size surprised the archaeologists, leading them to believe it was two vessels. It was only during later analyses that they realised it was a single ship of unprecedented dimensions.

Stenton cautions against using data from the great war vessels of the eleventh century to make assumptions about the ships of the ninth-century Amidst this uncertainty, he points to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which records that 23 ships came to Devon in 877, and lost 840 men at the Battle of Countisbury.

Stenton suggests that this contemporary statement, likely based on local knowledge, implies that each ship carried at least 36 fighting men.

Although the numbers of the slain may have been exaggerated, Stenton highlights the high probability that a considerable portion of the Viking host survived the battle. He concludes that the size of a large Viking army should likely be measured in thousands rather than hundreds.

New Evidence and Methodologies

Books like James Campbell’s collaborative volume The Anglo-Saxons (1991), and Neil Price’s The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings (2020), offer updated interpretations that incorporate new evidence and methodologies.

In his work, The Age of the Vikings (1971), Peter H. Sawyer discusses the difficulty of estimating the size of Viking armies, similar to Stenton’s observations.

Sawyer emphasizes the challenges in interpreting the available data, particularly the inconsistencies and exaggerations found in contemporary sources like the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

He supports the view that Viking armies, particularly those involved in major campaigns, were likely substantial in size, potentially numbering in the thousands rather than hundreds.

Sawyer also echoes the idea that the figures provided in sources should be taken with caution, yet he acknowledges the significant threat posed by these Viking forces, much like Stenton does.

He emphasizes the logistical capabilities of the Vikings, which would have allowed them to field and sustain large armies across extensive campaigns.

While Stenton and Sawyer’s works remain important and influential, they should be read in conjunction with more recent scholarship to gain a complete and current understanding of the topics they cover.

Newer research can provide updated perspectives, additional evidence, and sometimes revisions to the conclusions drawn by earlier historians. Therefore, while these sources are still relevant, they are most effectively used alongside contemporary studies in the field.

Price, N. (2020). The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings. Basic Civitas Books; Illustrated edition (25 Aug. 2020).

Campbell, J., John, E., & Wormald, P. (1991). The Anglo-Saxons. Penguin Books.

Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press, p. 249.

Sawyer, P. H. (1971). The Age of the Vikings. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 75-80.

Historians Supporting Wind Hill as Arx Cynwit

Respected historian and archaeologist Dr Robert Higham, in his Making Anglo Saxon Devon: Emergence of a Shire (2008, p. 64), identified Countisbury near Lynmouth as the “location of the Viking siege led by Ubba [Hubba, Ubbe], one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo-Saxon England in the 860s.” 

Michael Rayner, co-ordinator of the Battlefields Trust, placed the battle at Countisbury: "Battle of Countisbury Hill, 878". Rayner describes the victory as "morale boosting for the Wessex Saxons when they had been forced onto the defensive by the Danish Vikings" (2006, p. 109).

Rayner, Michael (2006): English battlefields : 500 battlefields that shaped English history. The History Press; UK ed. edition.

Landscape historian William G. Hoskins CBE FBA, in his well-respected, influential and comprehensive study: A New Survey of England – Devon (1954), states that “the precise scene of the battle was the earthwork, about [one mile] W. of the village, on the high neck of land between the Lyn gorge and the sea.”

Archaeological Evidence for Countisbury Wind Hill

Exmoor Heritage designates Wind Hill as an Iron Age earthwork to the east of Lynton and Lynmouth (Exmoor HER MEM25099). The large promontory fort "is one of the suggested sites for Cynwit mentioned by Asser and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (online: Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury [Monument]).

The original connotation of a burh was arx, castellum, mons. The origin of the name Cynwit/Cynuit is not certain; yet Arx Cynwit could have been the fortress of an Anglo-Saxon settlement at Countisbury, named `Contesberie' in Domesday.

Bosworth Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online: BURH.

The earthwork monument is located near postcode EX35 6NT, NGR SS 7395 4930, by the A39 Lynton to Countisbury road, and overlooks Lynmouth Bay to the north. Wind Hill offers a high commanding view of the East Lyn valley, and is strategically positioned for defence.

Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort, Lynton and Lynmouth - 1020807 | Historic England. 

Anglo-Saxon Burhs 

Under Alfred the Great, the Anglo-Saxons established a series of fortified towns, or “burhs”, throughout their realm. These strongholds a.k.a. arx were instrumental against Viking raids.

While the Battle of Cynwit was a significant event in the ongoing conflict between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings, it’s not directly linked to the creation of the Anglo-Saxon Burghal Hidage in c911. The Burghal Hidage is more directly related to Alfred the Great’s broader defensive strategy against the Vikings.

Burhs protected the inhabitants during assaults and functioned as key military outposts. This novel defensive strategy greatly contributed to King Alfred’s destruction of the Viking invasion. On the whole, the burh system proved to be an effective defence strategy.

Yet as we'll discuss later, Alfred was not the only nemesis of the Vikings in England and Wales.

Haslam, Jeremy: The Burghal Hidage and the West Saxon burhs. Cambridge University Press, Vol. 45 (2017).

Why Cynwit of 878 CE is Significant

Cynwit and its significance are often overlooked; firstly, the Danes seem to have overstretched themselves and underestimated the Anglo-Saxons' resolve and prowess. It would have taken a powerful and determined defence force to rout such a large Viking army.

Secondly: contemporary chronicles indicate the majority of twenty-three shiploads of Danes  were slain on the Cynwit field. This devastating defeat had a substantial impact on the Viking forces, diminishing their prospects for total conquest.

Power, Politics and Warfare of the Era

Alfred wasn’t the sole adversary of the Vikings, nor was he the only monarch bestowed with the title “Great”. During this era, England and Wales were engaged in territorial struggles. Both nations stood their ground and were formidable opponents against the Viking invasions. 

Welsh King Rhodri Mawr 'the Great'

The life and legacy of Welsh King Rhodri ap Merfyn a.k.a. Rhodri 'the Great' (b.c820 - d.c878 CE) are in some ways similar to Alfred's, although Rhodri's legacy is more focused on his military achievements.  Rhodri's influence continued after his death, and his other son, named Anarawd, governed the unified realms of Powys and Gwyned.

Edwards, Thomas (2014): Wales and the Britons, 350-106 (2^nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Around 855-856, Rhodri famously defeated the Vikings at Anglesey on the north coast of Wales, and slew their Danish chieftain. Rhodri demonstrated the Vikings could be beaten, and his victory played a crucial role in preserving the independence of his kingdom.

However, in 877, Rhodri was defeated in The Battle of Sunday, on Anglesey, and fled to Ireland. He returned a year later in 878 to defeat the Vikings on Anglesey. Later in 878, Rhodri and his son Gwiard were killed by the Viking client King Ceolwulf's army who were attempting to expand into Gwynedd (Thornton, David E., 2004). 

Rhodri Mawr (b. before 844, d. 878), king of Gwynedd. 2004, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

Museums Wales: When the Vikings invaded North Wales.

Vikings in Wales - World History Encyclopedia.

Cynwit Marked a Positive Change in Anglo-Saxon Fortunes

Cynwit was a catalyst in the Vikings' failure to conquer the Kingdom of Wessex—the only Anglo-Saxon province that survived the Vikings—or all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

The victory at Cynwit was a precursor to a more famous victory later that year. Moreover, the West Saxons demonstrated that victories could be achieved under leaders other than the King.

MacNeill, Ryan (2019): The Great Heathen Failure: Why the Great Heathen Army Failed to Conquer the Whole of Anglo-Saxon England. Thesis, Winthrop University.

The Battle of Cynwit Contributed to Anglo-Saxon Independence

Historians consider that the West Saxons’ victory over the Danes at Cynwit ultimately led to King Alfred’s destruction of the Great Heathen Army at the Battle of Edington in 878, which saved Anglo-Saxon independence.

Edington was shortly followed by the Peace of Wedmore. Following the battle, Alfred and Guthrum reached a peace agreement, which included Guthrum’s baptism and the establishment of boundaries between the Anglo-Saxon and Viking territories.

The treaty delineated clear boundaries between Anglo-Saxon and Viking territories. This division reduced immediate threats from Viking raids in certain areas, allowing for the development of Anglo-Saxon society and governance.

Battle of Edington [Ethundun] 878 | Summary | Britannica.

Oxford Reference (2024): Treaty of Wedmore 878 CE.

Oxford Bibliographies (2023): Alfred The Great - Medieval Studies.

Yorke, Barbara (History Today, 1999): "Alfred the Great: The Most Perfect Man in History?". History Today Vol. 49 Issue 10, 1999.

Anglo-Saxon Ealdormen and the Fyrd

Anglo-Saxon Ealdormen or Earls, held administrative authority for tax collection, governance, and for mobilising the fyrd militia, in the administrative divisions they controlled. These high-ranking royal functionaries governed one or more shires, and answered directly to the king.

In Anglo-Saxon England, every freeman was legally required to serve in the fyrd militia when called upon, although this could not always be enforced in practice.

Mōmmaerts-Browne, T.S.M. (2005): Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy: Tracing Lineages.

Oxford Reference (2023): Fyrd.

Career of Alfred the Great, AD 871-901, by Thomas Hughes. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (23 Aug. 2017).

The Vikings Occupy Parts of Devon in 1001 CE

In 1001 CE, after incursions in the 9th century AD, the Vikings succeeded in occupying parts of Devon, establishing settlements and exerting control over the area. While this Viking occupation was significant, it was relatively short-lived compared to other historical periods.

Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel, approximately 10 nautical miles (19 km) off the coast of North Devon, England, derives its name from Old Norse: “lund” (meaning “puffin”) and “ey” (meaning “island”). 

According to the Devonshire Association (2024), Lundy Island is a unique case with Viking origins in the region. While the Vikings influenced Devon, most of Devon’s place names have their roots in Old English or Celtic languages and cultures.

Although Vikings formed alliances with the Cornish against the Saxons, there is scant evidence of their occupation in Cornwall, which they called "Kernow". 

Devon's rich history includes influences from Celtic tribes, Roman occupation, and later Anglo-Saxon settlements. The Norman Conquest of 1066 changed the region beyond recognition.

Devon Place-Names Project – The Devonshire Association (devonassoc.org.uk).

The Vikings: A History | Historic Cornwall (historic-cornwall.org.uk).

The Viking Age in Europe

The era known as the Viking Age, a significant phase in Denmark’s prehistory, extended from approximately 800 CE to 1050 CE. From the 9th century CE, the first Viking kings emerged. This epoch was marked by maritime voyages to distant lands, and substantial societal transformations. The Vikings sought to trade, accumulate wealth, and to conquer new land. 

From the late 8th century CE onwards, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were frequently attacked by the Norsemen. At the start of the Viking Age in Europe: their infamous raid on the monastery at Lindisfarne in 793 CE was graphically documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

A sequence of invasions and conflicts followed, as the Vikings ravaged and looted settlements, taking livestock and portable wealth. Initially sending shockwaves throughout English Christendom: these raids would continue for two centuries.

Apart from King Alfred, there were other significant figures who played a role in the resistance against the Vikings during the Anglo-Saxon period. The Viking Age in Europe is widely considered to have ended in the year 1066, marked by the Norman Conquest of England.

National Museums of Denmark: The Viking Age.

English Heritage (2023): The Viking Raid on Lindisfarne.

When Did the Viking Age End? What Happened to the Vikings? Clear Answers for a Quick and Precise Understanding - True Scandinavia.

The Anglo-Saxon Burghal Hidage 

The Burghal Hidage, an Anglo-Saxon document thought to have been produced between 911 and 914 (although other theories exist), represents the strategy implemented by Alfred in the late 9th century to brace for the resurgence of Viking invasions, which indeed occurred in 892.

The document provides an in-depth view of the system of fortified towns known as burhs.

The History of England: Burghal Hidage.

The Vikings raided Watchet, Somerset, in 918 according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle for 902-924. The chronicle records they came to Watchet again in 987, and in 997 with much evil wrought in burning and manslaughter.

Viking chieftains Svein and his offspring Knut extended their activities to the southernmost parts of Anglo-Saxon Devon and Cornwall. Viking leaders such as Pallig Tokeson raided Devon, assaulting a number of coastal settlements.

In 997, the Vikings navigated up the Tamar River, launched an attack on the Tavistock Abbey, and returned to their ships with looted treasure (The Vikings in Devon - Dartmoor Resource).

What if the Vikings Had Won at Arx Cynwit?

If the battle in 878 CE had ended in defeat for the West Saxons: the implications could have been disastrous for England. Alfred would have been dethroned, or worse. England would have become a Danish state with profound implications for its culture, language, and identity (Nick Arnold, 2008: Medieval News - "Site of Battle of Cynuit Discovered").

King Alfred sought to cultivate a shared identity among the Angles, transcending regional factionism. He envisioned Angelcynn—the Anglo-Saxon family—as a means to forge a united, resilient society capable of withstanding the Viking incursions and their cultural impact.

Wessex under Alfred was the only surviving Anglo-Saxon province, and the bulwark against the Danish invasion. A loss for the West Saxons might have undermined the King's resistance and potentially reshaped English history.

Expansion of the Vikings: The West Saxons’ victory at the arx Cynwit was a blow to the Vikings, especially the “Great Heathen Army” that was in the process of conquering and subjugating many of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. A victory for the Vikings could have hastened their expansion and reinforced their dominance over more territories.

Political Repercussions: The political dynamics of England could have been dramatically altered, with potential shifts in the power balance among the various kingdoms.

In the event, West Saxony became a central power during the late Anglo-Saxon period from circa the 9th century to the Norman Conquest in 1066.

The Conquest deposed England's rulers whose legacy, particularly Alfred the Great and his descendants, laid the foundations for a unified English monarchy and England's sociological development.

Collective Efforts Subdued The Vikings in This Era

Not only Alfred the Great and Rhodri Mawr, but numerous other leaders and communities throughout England and Wales resisted the Viking invasions. Their united stand was instrumental in safeguarding their lands during this period of upheaval.

The Vikings in Britain: a brief history / Historical Association.

History is Complex

Our comments merely reflect our understanding and opinions from numerous sources and credible accounts we include here.

Texts and records are open to interpretation, and historic texts can be analysed through different lenses while considering the cultural, social, and political contexts of their time.

If the Vikings had taken control of Wessex, the repercussions would have hinged on a multitude of factors, including the strategies of the leaders, alliances, and numerous other historical events.

History is complex and everything is linked; a single event can trigger far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Wessex under Alfred was the only surviving Anglo-Saxon administrative division; yet his saintly reputation, which draws largely on the politicised Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (ASC), has recently been challenged.

Hagiographies and Propaganda

While neither the valuable ASC nor Asser’s important biography of Alfred are hagiographies: they do contain elements of idealism, such as the portrayal of Alfred as a saint.

King Alfred 'The Great' is a celebrated monarch, yet historical sources can sometimes contain elements of propaganda, bias and myth.

Conclusion

Earl Odda's victory over the Danes at Cynwit in January 878 AD was a key event in preventing the subjugation of Wessex, the last early-English kingdom. The battle was won by someone other than King Alfred, demonstrating that Earl Odda’s victory and Anglo-Saxon resistance to Viking incursions were not solely reliant on the king.

Among candidates including 'Bloody Corner' in Northam, and 'Cannington Camp', Somerset, the evidence suggests that the Battle of Cynwit occurred at Countisbury Hillfort (Wind Hill) near Lynmouth Bay in Exmoor National Park, Devon. This location aligns with the documented arrival of Ubba's Viking fleet, and matches historical descriptions from Asser's Life of Alfred as well as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

These sources describe a fortified position, "arx Cynuit," accessible mainly from the east, which aligns with the features of Countisbury Hillfort. Wind Hill's elevation (c. 300 metres), steep cliffs, and deep valleys provided a defensible stronghold, combining natural and man-made defences (Historic England L.E.N. 1020807).

In his work editing and interpreting historical texts, historian Charles Plummer coined the term "quasi Cynwitesbyrig," claiming a phonetic resemblance to "Countisbury." Plummer's linkage aimed to clarify the location of the Battle of Cynwit, suggesting Countisbury Hillfort as the site (Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel [787-1001 AD]).

Linguistic analysis indicates that Countisbury derives from the Brittonic name Cunét, meaning a high or fortified place, with the Old English addition of "Burg" (fort). Over time, Cunét evolved into Cynuit or Cynwit, supporting the connection between Countisbury and the battle site known as Cynwit in historical records.

While some scholars debate the phonological differences between Cynwit and Countisbury, the English Place Names Society and historian Charles Plummer have convincingly argued in favor of Countisbury as the correct location. Their research ties the hillfort's strategic significance to the battle described in primary sources.

Although the Vikings left little written evidence, most information comes from Anglo-Saxon sources. Twelfth-century chronicler Geoffrey Gaimer suggests that the Danish King Ubba landed from South Wales along the Exmoor coast and established a beachhead before facing the West Saxons at Cynwit (National Trust, 100256 / MNA108011).

Without direct archaeological evidence, such as artifacts, this connection remains speculative, based mainly on geographical and historical analysis.

King Alfred the Great’s reign (871-899 AD) saw Wessex under constant Viking threat. His defensive strategies, including fortified towns, a standing army, and alliances, were crucial in preserving Wessex and setting the stage for England’s unification. Subsequently, Alfred has been regarded as the architect of the English political community.

The Wessex victory at Cynwit marked a significant setback for Viking expansion and bolstered Anglo-Saxon resistance, solidifying Anglo-Saxon dominance and political stability. It paved the way for a unified English kingdom (The History Guild: "The Development of England").

Alfred's successors, particularly his son Edward the Elder and grandson Athelstan, expanded control over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, leading to England's unification under a single monarchy.

Had Wessex been defeated at Cynwit, the unification of England would likely have been delayed, profoundly altering the cultural, political, and religious landscape for centuries.

The events surrounding Cynwit illustrate a complex landscape of shifting allegiances and cultural tensions. Recognising these diverse perspectives adds to discourse in medieval studies, and enhances our understanding of the factors leading to England’s unification.

The evidence and arguments that Wind Hill at Countisbury was the site of the Battle of Cynwit in 878 AD are convincing. They align well with the documented historical context, yet they do not offer definitive proof. 

Compelling evidence would ideally derive from the discovery of battle-related artifacts, human remains with combat injuries, and inscriptions referencing the event. Comprehensive environmental analyses and the uncovering of additional historical texts would also be essential. In the absence of such evidence, the hypothesis remains robust yet unverified.

In the future, research could further investigate the interplay of local and central authority in Early English history within the context of Viking invasions, and their lasting effects.

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© Authors, Combemartinvillage.co.uk 2023-2024 All Rights Reserved (Terms and Conditions).

Views expressed in this article are solely those of the authors.

Footnotes:

From the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Vikings launched raids and established colonies across vast regions of Europe. An early recorded encounter between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons occurred in 787 CE, when Viking ships arrived on the Dorset coast, executing a royal official.

These incursions escalated in the 860s, with large Viking forces invading and looting the Anglo-Saxon territories of Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. In 860, the Vikings blockaded Winchester, the capital of Wessex, but were repelled by the Anglo-Saxons led by King Æthelwulf (r. 839 to 858) and his son Alfred.

The Viking attacks continued until 896, culminating in their retreat to East Anglia where they settled. These raids significantly influenced the political and cultural landscape of West Saxony, prompting the Anglo-Saxons to consolidate their defences.

Alfred’s countermeasures against the Great Heathen Army marked an epoch in the formation of the English kingdom, as noted by the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic at the University of Cambridge. His victory over the Vikings unified the Anglo-Saxon people, paving the way for his descendants to govern a united England.

Alfred authored significant English legal codes, safeguarded his realm from Viking conquests, and emerged as England’s pre-eminent ruler. He initiated a sense of ‘English’ identity that transcended the smaller existing kingdoms.

His initiatives included translating classical texts from Latin into English, establishing public schools, overhauling the military, and updating and enlarging the legal system. However, some argue that Alfred’s reputation may be partly attributed to propaganda. Among other academic authors, Simon Keynes explores this perspective in his 1999 journal article “The Cult of King Alfred.”

Records and texts are open to interpretation. And despite Alfred’s remarkable reign there are debates surrounding the effectiveness of his military reforms, such as the construction of redoubts, and a network of fortified towns (burhs) garrisoned by a standing army (McDermott, 2009, Alfred the Great: Viking Wars and Military Reforms).

Combe Martin historian John H. Moore reports that "the Vikings left no place names in Devon (if we exclude Lundy which means Puffin Island) but a few Anglo-Danish personal names appear later in Cnut's time." (Sellman 1962 p. 23).

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Cite this article: Combe Martin History Project. The Battle of Cynwit (878). Combe Martin Village History Project, 2023-2024, https://www.combemartinvillage.co.uk/early-histories/battle-of-arx-cynwit-countisbury-878-ce. [Accessed date].

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Track Up Wind Hill at Countisbury, North Devon - © Steve Daniels:

Lynmouth near Countisbury, North Devon - © J. P. Harrison 2024:

Vikings raid Northumbria in AD 793  (AI representation):

Anglo-Saxon England (7th century AD) and Norse Raids and Expansion (8th-11th centuries AD):